Another Darkness, Another Dawn Read online

  3 M. Moraes, Os Ciganos no Brazil: Contribuição ethnographica (Rio de Janeiro, 1886), pp. 23–4.

  4 A. de St-Hilare, Viagem a provincial de Sao Paolo, trans. R. Regis Junqueira (Sao Paolo, 1976), pp. 102–3, quoted in Dovovan, ‘Changing Perceptions’, p. 42.

  5 M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, and Residence There, During Part of the Years 1821, 1822, 1823 (London, 1824), pp. 253–4, quoted in Donovan, ‘Changing Perceptions’, p. 44.

  6 Donovan, ‘Changing Perceptions’, pp. 33–53.

  7 A. T. Sinclair, American Gypsies: Edited from Manuscripts in the New York Public Library, with Additions, by George F. Black (New York, 1917), p. 17.

  8 See ‘American Gypsies’, The Family Magazine, or Monthly Abstract of General Knowledge, 2 (1835), pp. 86–7; and M. Sway, Familiar Strangers: Gypsy Lives in America (Champaign, IL, 1988), pp. 37–9.

  9 Cited in B. Belton, Questioning Gypsy Identity: Ethnic Narratives in Britain and America (Walnut Creek, CA, and Oxford, 2005), pp. 73–5.

  10 Ibid.

  11 Ibid.

  12 Statutes, 39 Eliz., c. 4., cited in ibid.

  13 Donovan, ‘Changing Perceptions’, p. 39.

  14 F. L. Olmsted, Journey to the Seaboard Slave States (New York, 1856), cited in Sinclair, American Gypsies, p. 18.

  15 Anon., ‘The Gypsies of Aleppo’, JGLS, 3rd series, IX/2 (1930), p. 95. Quotes from A. Russell, The Natural History of Aleppo (London, 1756), p. 104, and R. Pococke, A Description of the East (London, 1745), pp. 207–8.

  16 Translation published in ‘Two Rumanian Documents concerning Gypsies’, trans. M. Gaster, JGLS, 3rd series, IX/4 (1930), pp. 179–82.

  17 ‘Two Rumanian Documents’, pp. 179–82.

  18 Phanariots were an Ottoman Christian elite that claimed a Byzantine heritage and who, despite structural impediments, imperial ideology and religious doctrine, ascended to power in the region from the mid-seventeenth century. For a discussion of their role in Ottoman strategies to maintain control of the Balkans in the eighteenth century see C. Philliou, ‘Communities on the Verge: Unravelling the Phanariot Ascendancy in Ottoman Governance’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 51 (2009) pp. 151–81.

  19 Mavrocordato ruled Moldavia on four occasions and Wallachia five times. D. Crowe, A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Basingstoke, 2006), pp. 110–11.

  20 ‘Two Rumanian Documents’, pp. 179–82.

  21 Panaitecscu, ‘The Gypsies in Wallachia and Moldavia: A Chapter of Economic History’, JGLS, 3rd series, XX/2 (1941), pp. 69–70.

  22 I. M. Zeitlin, Jews. The Making of a Diaspora People (Cambridge, 2012), p. 85.

  23 For newer, critical approaches to the idea of ‘the Enlightenment’ see D. Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, NY, 1994); C. Hesse, The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern (Princeton, NJ, 2001); J. Israel, Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man, 1670–1752 (Oxford, 2006).

  24 A controversial but useful introduction to primary sources on this topic is E. Chukwudi Eze, Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader (Cambridge, 1997).

  25 E. Filhol, ‘La Bohemienne dans les dictionnaires francais (XVIIIe–XIXe siècles): discours, histoire et pratiques socio-culturelles’, in La Bohemienne; figure poetique de l’errance aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles, ed. P. Auraix-Jonchiere and G. Loubinoux (Clermont-Ferrand, 2005), pp. 21–44.

  26 W. Willems, In Search of the True Gypsy: From Enlightenment to Final Solution (London and Portland, OR, 1997).

  27 H.M.G. Grellmann, Dissertation on the Gypsies, being an Historical Enquiry, Concerning the Manner of Life, Economy, Customs and Conditions of these People of Europe, and their Origin, trans. M. Rapier (London, 1787), p. i.

  28 Ibid., pp. ix–xi and xv–xvi.

  29 Ibid., pp. 83–4.

  30 Ibid., pp. 83–4.

  31 Ibid., pp. 84–5.

  32 Willems, In Search of the True Gypsy, p. 30.

  33 See D. Beales, Enlightenment and Reform in Eighteenth Century Europe (London and New York, 2005), and M. Hochedlinger, Austria’s Wars of Emergence: War, State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683–1797 (Harlow and London, 2003) for a general history of the period.

  34 Willems, In Search of the True Gypsy, pp. 31–2.

  35 Ibid., pp. 34–5.

  36 Grellmann, Dissertation on the Gypsies, pp. 70–71.

  37 Ibid., p. 80.

  38 Although this was a partial process, with the central authority of the state often resisted or ignored. See for example R. Mackay, The Limits of Royal Authority: Resistance and Obedience in Seventeenth-Century Castile (Cambridge, 1999).

  39 Fraser, The Gypsies, pp. 163–4.

  40 A. Gómez Alfaro, The Great ‘Gypsy’ Round-up in Spain (Strasbourg, n.d). See also his The Great Gypsy Round-up: Spain; The General Imprisonment of Gypsies in 1749 (Madrid, 1993).

  41 Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Cambridge, 1989).

  42 My analysis of the round-up is based on Gómez Alfaro, Great ‘Gypsy’ Round-up. For his full consideration of this topic see his The Great Gypsy Round-up: Spain; The General Imprisonment of Gypsies in 1749.

  43 Gómez Alfaro, Great ‘Gypsy’ Round-up, p. 5.

  44 An appeal from Bernardo Martínez de Malla, Cristóbal Bermúdez, Miguel Correa, Salvador Bautista and Pedro González quoted in Gómez Alfaro, Great ‘Gypsy’ Round-up, p. 101.

  45 Gómez Alfaro, Great ‘Gypsy’ Round-up, p. 8.

  46 Fraser, The Gypsies, pp. 166–7.

  47 Ibid., p. 145.

  48 F. de Vaux de Foletier, Les tsiganes dans l’ancienne France (Paris, 1961), p. 211; Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 147.

  49 O. Hufton, ‘Begging, Vagrancy, Vagabondage and the Law: an Aspect of the Problem of Poverty in Eighteenth-century France’, European History Quarterly, 2 (1972), pp. 97–123.

  FOUR Nationalism, Race and Respectability

  1 T. Kontje, ‘Gypsies and Orientalism in German Literature and Anthropology of the Long Nineteenth Century by Nicholas Saul: Review’, Modern Language Review, CIII/4 (2008), pp. 1154–5.

  2 Quoted in X. du Crest, ‘Bohemiens, Gitans, Tsiganes et Romanichels dans la peinture francaise du XIXe Siecle’ in Le mythe des Bohemiens dans la littérature et les arts en Europe, ed. S. Moussa (Paris, 2008), p. 246.

  3 T. Tetzner, Geschichte der Zigeuner; ihre Herkunft, Natur und Art. Für gebildete Leser dargestellt (Weimar and Ilmenau, 1835).

  4 E. Filhol ‘La Bohemienne dans les dictionnaires francais (XVIIIe–XIXe siècles): discours, histoire et pratiques socio-culturelles’, in La Bohemienne; figure poetique de l’errance aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles, ed. P. Auraix-Jonchiere and G. Loubinoux (Clermont-Ferrand, 2005), pp. 24–38.

  5 L. Lucassen, ‘A Blind Spot: Migratory and Travelling Groups in Western European Historiography’, International Review of Social History, 2 (1993), pp. 209–35.

  6 B. Whyte, The Yellow on the Broom (Edinburgh, 1979); and N. Joyce, Travellers: An Autobiography (Dublin, 1985).

  7 J. Bloch, Les Tsiganes, (Paris, 1969).

  8 A. Sutre, ‘“Les Bohémiens du pays”: une inscription territoriale des Bohémiens dans le Sud-Ouest de la France au XIXème et au début du XXème siècle’, unpublished MA thesis, Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS), 2010, pp. 159–60.

  9 Ibid., p. 159.

  10 F. de Vaux de Foletier, Les bohémiens en France au 19ème siècle (Paris, 1970), pp. 63–73 and 105.

  11 L. Charnon-Deutsch, ‘Travels of the Imaginary Spain Gypsy’, in J. Labanyi, Constructing Identity in Twentieth Century Spain: Theoretical Debates and Cultural Practice (Oxford, 2002), pp. 22–40.

  12 W. Willems. In Search of the True Gypsy: From Enlightenment to Final Solution (London and Portland, OR, 1997), p. 76.

  13 In P. Panayi, Ethnic Minorities in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Germany: Jews, Gypsies, Poles, Turks and Others (London, 2000), p. 53.

  14 Ibid.

>   15 J. Baird, The New Statistical Account of Roxburghshire (Edinburgh, 1841).

  16 Brunel was a civil servant for the French Council of Hygiene. E. Braga, ‘Les Bohémiens de la Région Parisienne: entre fantasmes et réalités (1850–années 1930)’, unpublished MA thesis, Université de Paris I, 2011, pp. 40–42.

  17 G. Borrow, Romano Lavo-Lil (London, 1874), pp. 207–37.

  18 A. Harding, East End Underworld: Chapters in the Life of Arthur Harding, ed. R. Samuel (London, 1981), pp. 220–21, 223.

  19 J. Walton, ‘Municipal Government and the Holiday Industry in Blackpool’, in Leisure in Britain, 1780–1939, ed. J. Walton and J. Walvin (Manchester, 1983), pp. 159–85.

  20 S. G. Boswell, The Book of Boswell: The Autobiography of a Gypsy, ed. J. Seymour (London, 1970), pp. 19–20.

  21 P. Robert, ‘La migration des Sinté piémontais en France au XIXème siècle’, Etudes Tsiganes (2004), pp. 18–51.

  22 A. Reyniers, ‘Pérégrinations des Jénis en France au XIXe siècle’, Etudes Tsiganes, II/2 (1991), pp. 19–25.

  23 Vaux de Foletier, Les bohémiens, p. 101.

  24 Reyniers, ‘Pérégrinations des Jénis’, p. 20.

  25 A. Paspati, ‘Turkish Gypsies’, JGLS, 1st series, I/1 (1889), pp. 3–5; and more generally his Études sur les Tchingianés ou Bohémiens de l’Empire Ottoman (Constantinople, 1870).

  26 E. Marushiakova and V. Popov, Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire (Hatfield, 2001), p. 69.

  27 S.G.B. St Clair and C. A. Brophy, A Residence in Bulgaria; or Notes on the Resources and Administration of Turkey: The Condition and Character, Manners, Customs and Language of the Christian and Mussulman Populations, with Preference to the Eastern Question (London, 1869), pp. 7–11.

  28 See for example N. Hampson, ‘The Idea of Nation in Revolutionary France’, in Reshaping France: Town, Country and Region during the French Revolution, ed. A. Forrest and P. Jones (Manchester, 1991), pp. 13–25.

  29 M. Biondich, The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878 (Oxford, 2011). The most famous and cogent discussion of this ‘invention’ is Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger’s The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983).

  30 For more on the political ideologies sustaining the Ottomans, see D. Goffmann, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2002) and S. Deringil, The Well Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London and New York, 1998).

  31 An introduction to the different writings and perspectives on this complex topic can be found in M. Turda, ‘National Historiographies in the Balkans, 1830–1989’, in The Contested Nation. Ethnicities, Class, Religion and Gender in National Histories, ed. S. Berger and C. Lorenz (Basingstoke, 2011), pp. 463–89. See also T. Georgieva, ‘Migrations in the History of Multi-ethnicity and Multiculturalism in the Balkans: Bulgarian Sources’, in E. Popova and M. Hajdinjak, Forced Ethnic Migrations in the Balkans: Consequences and the Rebuilding of Societies, conference proceedings, Sofia, February 2005, pp. 13–20.

  32 See their works, J. A. Vaillant, Les Romes, histoire vraie des vrais Bohémiens (Paris, 1857), and F Colson, De l’etat present et de l’avenir des principautes de Moldavie et de Valachie; suivi des traits de la Turquie avec des puissances Europeannes, et d’une carte des pays Roumains (Paris, 1839).

  33 Vaillant Les Romes, quoted in E. Pons, De la robie la asimilare (1999), http://adatbank.transindex.ro, accessed 8 November 2012.

  34 M. Kogălniceanu, Esquisse sur l’histoire, les moeurs et la langue des Cigains (Berlin, 1837), p. 16.

  35 D. Crowe, A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Basingstoke, 2006), p. 115.

  36 For a general introduction to the significance of the 1848 revolutions see J. Sperber, The European Revolutions, 1848–51 (Cambridge, 2005).

  37 A. Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford, 1995), pp. 224–6.

  38 Marushiakova and Popov, Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire, p. 86.

  39 S. Tabakov, An Attempt at a History of the Town of Sliven (Sofia, 1911), quoted in Marushiakova and Popov, Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire, pp. 57–9.

  40 Crowe, History of the Gypsies, pp. 7–8.

  41 Ibid., p. 162.

  42 C. Delclitte, ‘Nomades et nomadisme: le cas de la France 1895–1912’, unpublished MA thesis, Université de Paris VIII, 1994, p. 17.

  43 Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 228.

  44 Vaux de Foletier, Les bohémiens, pp. 123–4.

  45 I. Hancock, The Pariah Syndrome: An Account of Gypsy Slavery and Persecution (Ann Arbor, MI, 1987), p. 37.

  46 I. Brown, ‘The Gypsies in America’, JGLS, 3rd series VIII/4 (1929), p. 148.

  47 Circular issued by the minister for the interior to prefects, 19 November 1864.

  48 26,885 people were arrested as part of this coup. For details of their experiences of transportation see M. Spieler, Empire and Underworld: Captivity in French Guiana (Cambridge, MA, 2012).

  49 Circular issued by the minister for the interior to prefects, 19 November 1864.

  50 Vaux de Foletier, Les bohémiens, pp. 172 and 178.

  51 Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 253.

  52 W. A. Barbieri, Ethics of Citizenship: Immigration and Group Rights in Germany (Durham, 1998) 13.

  53 Panayi, Ethnic Minorities, p. 10.

  54 B. Vick, ‘The Origins of the German Volk: Cultural Purity and National Identity in Nineteenth-Century Germany’, German Studies Review, XXVI/2 (2003), pp. 241–56.

  55 W. Solms, ‘On the demonising of Jews and Gypsies in Fairy Tales’, in, Sinti and Roma: Gypsies in German-speaking Society and Literature, ed. S. Tebbutt (New York and Oxford, 1998), pp. 91–104.

  56 M. Fulbrook, A Concise History of Germany (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 114–15; K. Bade and J. Oltmer, ‘Germany’, in The Encyclopedia of Migration and Minorities in Europe from the Seventeenth Century to the Present, ed. K. Bade et al. (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 65–82. Between 1816 and 1914 around 5.5 million Germans emigrated to the usa.

  57 ‘Bittschrift des Allgemeinen Deutschen Handels-und Gewerbevereins an die Bundesversammlung vom 20. April 1819 gemäss Friedrich List’, Schriften, Reden Briefe, Bd. 1 (Berlin 1929), in M. Görtenmaker, Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert (Opladen, 1994).

  58 Hessisches Staatsarchiv, Darmstadt, Germany (hereafter HStAD), G 15 Friedberg Q/Nr. 279, Großherzoglich Hessische Zeitung, Darmstadt, 17 April 1819.

  59 HStAD/G 15 Friedberg Q/Nr. 279, The Grand Duchy Hessian Cabinet of the Province Upper Hesse to the various district administrations and police administrations in the province, Giessen, 8 December 1821.

  60 See for example A. Green, Fatherlands: State-building and Nationhood in Nineteenth-century Germany (Cambridge, 2001). Thomas Mann’s classic novel Buddenbrooks gives a fictionalized account of regional differences and social change from the 1830s to the 1870s.

  61 R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA, 1992), pp. 13–15.

  62 Panayi, Ethnic Minorities, p. 52.

  63 Quoted in Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 249.

  64 L. Lucassen, ‘Harmful Tramps: Police Professionalization and Gypsies in Germany, 1700–1945’, in L. Lucassen, W. Willems and A-M. Cottaar, Gypsies and other Itinerant Groups: A Socio-historical approach (London and New York, 1998), p. 84.

  65 A. K. Fahrmeir, ‘Nineteenth Century German Citizenships. A Reconsideration’, Historical Journal XL/3 (1997), pp. 721–52; see also Lucassen, ‘Harmful Tramps’.

  66 Foreigners might also become Prussian, but they had to prove, among other things that they had led an ‘irreproachable life’. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood, p. 13.

  67 R. Salillas, El delincuente espanol: el lenguaje (Madrid, 1896), pp. 208–9, quoted in Charnon-Deutsch, ‘Travels of the Imaginary Spanish Gypsy’, pp. 24–5.

  68 Lucassen, ‘Harmful Tramps’, p. 76.

  69 Ibid., pp. 81–2.

  70 HStAD: No. 42. Resolution of the Royal Ministry of the Interior 11. Police treatment of Gypsies, April 1885.

  71 See
R. Kedward, La vie en bleu (London, 2005), p. 11; and R. Price, A Concise History of France (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 228–9 and 239.

  72 D. Mayall, Gypsy-Travellers in Nineteenth Century Society (Cambridge, 1988), p. 20.

  73 Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 216.

  74 Mayall, Gypsy-Travellers, Appendix 1, provides a summary of legislation affecting Travellers from 1530 to 1908.

  75 Braga, ‘Les Bohémians de la Région Parisienne’.

  76 Vaux de Foletier, Les bohémiens, p. 170.

  77 J-M. Berlière, ‘La république et les nomades (1880–1914)’, Etudes Tsiganes (2004), pp. 18–57.

  78 G. Smith, I’ve Been a’Gipsying (London, 1882), Preface.

  79 Report of the Select Committee on the Temporary Dwellings Bill (London 1887), pp. 45–6; detailed discussions of the earlier phase of Moveable Dwellings Bills can be found in Mayall, Gypsy-Travellers, chapter six, and G. K. Behlmer, ‘The Gypsy Problem in Victorian England’, Victorian Studies, XXVIII/2 (1985), pp. 231–55; and the later phase in B. Taylor, A Minority and the State: Travellers in Britain in the Twentieth Century (Manchester, 2008), chapter two.

  80 Smith, I’ve been a’Gipsying, p. 242.

  81 The National Archives, Kew (hereafter TNA), HO45/10529/147162/7, Pedder’s notes on Select Committee, 24 October 1910.

  82 Ibid.

  83 Delclitte, ‘Nomades et nomadisme’, p. 73; Berlière, ‘La république et les nomades’, p. 52; and P. Lawrence, ‘Images of Poverty and Crime: Police Memoirs in England and France at the End of the Nineteenth Century’, Crime, Histoire et Sociétés, IV/1 (2000), pp. 73–4.

  84 Following the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine residents were given fifteen months to choose between emigrating to France or remaining and legally becoming German. By 1876, about 100,000 (approximately 5 per cent) of the population had emigrated to France.

  85 Berlière, ‘La république et les nomades’, p. 57; and Vaux de Foletier, Les bohémiens, p. 167.

  86 Vaux de Foletier, Les bohémiens, 183.